To Understand Social Divides in Medieval England, Archaeologists Examined Tooth Enamel From Lead Mining Communities

Some residents of the Peaks District in the 13th century may have experienced worse lead pollution than city-dwellers during the Industrial Revolution. Female skeletons showed higher lead levels and earlier ages of death

Gabby Shell | Editorial intern

October 21, 2026 7:00 a.m.

Eyes may be the window to the soul, but new archaeological research shows that teeth could hold the clues to understanding social status among medieval England’s lead mining communities.

In a study published in Antiquity last week, researchers examined teeth from burials in three cemeteries across the Peak District, looking at skeletons ranging from 650 C.E. to 1500 C.E. The team analyzed tooth enamel, which is formed in early childhood, to measure the level of environmental lead contamination that these populations were exposed to as a result of the region’s medieval-era lead industry.

While the Peak District’s lead industry dates to Roman times, production collapsed along with the empire’s presence in Britian in the 5th century C.E. Historians have long been unsure when exactly the regional industry was revived.

The study pinpointed the revitalization of lead production to the mid-7th century, while pollution levels peaked in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, a finding that corresponds with previous historical and environmental evidence, according to a statement. Those levels of lead pollution may have at times surpassed even Industrial Revolution-era levels.

“What we were measuring was the lead concentrations incorporated into the teeth when the individuals were children,” Christopher Loveluck, an archaeologist at the University of Nottingham and the study’s lead author, tells the BBC’s Greig Watson. “And it showed the levels were off the scale.”

Previous research has shown high levels of environmental lead pollution in the Peak District throughout the medieval period, but the Antiquity study suggests that not everyone was equally affected.

While coming into contact with or ingesting lead was practically unavoidable for wealthy people in the Middle Ages, this new study indicates that the effects of lead poisoning may have fallen heavily on women and members of lower social classes.

Men buried with high-status grave goods showed “very low levels of contamination,” Loveluck tells the BBC. Individuals buried with no markers of status in the 7th century registered much higher lead concentrations. This suggests that while elites may have been overseeing the newly revived lead industry, lower-status households bore the brunt of exposure to the metal.

Because enamel forms during childhood and does not change later in life, the high levels of lead exposure came when the individuals in the study were young. “So that incorporation could have happened either from a lead contaminated environment or it could have happened as a result of children actually helping process lead, which basically means smash it up into smaller pieces for smelting,” Loveluck explains to the BBC.

Three women excavated for the study who showed high levels of lead poisoning died between the ages of 17 and 25, suggesting that women exposed to lead poisoning as girls may have faced a disproportionate risk as they entered childbearing years. During pregnancy, lead stored in the body can be released back into the bloodstream.

“Our results indicate that in these mining communities, girls and boys alike were raised in dangerously polluted home environments. This exposure will likely have caused negative health effects in life, and perhaps contributed to higher rates of premature death among women of childbearing age,” Anna Bloxam, an archaeologist at the University of Nottingham, says in the statement.

Lead poisoning, particularly in childhood, can lead to brain and nervous system damage, slowed growth and a host of other health issues. At the same time, all the individuals in the study lived to adulthood, and isotopic analysis indicates that most had grown up locally, signs that work in the industry was stable and passed down through generations.

“This study has enabled us, for the first time … to look more deeply into the profound impact lead production had on individuals and the communities they lived in,” Colin Merrony, an archaeologist at the University of Sheffield, says in the statement.