Rising fuel prices, dissatisfaction with education, deteriorating public services and a worsening housing crisis are fueling a wave of protests across Europe this autumn.
Demonstrations have continued for weeks in major cities, with some turning violent and resulting in arrests, looting and injuries in France, Italy and Albania. In Spain and Portugal, protesters have set up tent camps to draw attention to increasingly unaffordable housing.
Young Europeans are experiencing "a strong sense of uncertainty and a lack of control," said María Silvestre, a sociology professor at Spain's University of Deusto. "And when specific situations come together, a spark suddenly ignites that is capable of channeling that discontent and driving people into the streets."
The unrest comes as major European Union economies, including France, Italy and Spain, approach crucial elections, while far-right parties have made electoral gains in Germany and could advance elsewhere. It also coincides with a critical period for Europe's support for Ukraine, as US President Donald Trump makes overtures to Russian President Vladimir Putin and Russia faces accusations of increasingly frequent arson attacks, cyberattacks and other acts of sabotage in NATO countries.
Right-wing politicians have sought to capitalize on the unrest. Although protests in France have appeared broad-based, Trump blamed immigrants for the destruction, writing on his Truth Social platform on Monday: "The migrants have taken over France. They must close the borders, fast!"
Many demonstrations have been driven by frustrated young people. Other groups, including masked agitators dressed in black, have contributed to the violence, but French authorities and police have not blamed immigrants.
Here is a look at the factors driving the unrest:
Students demand more resources for schools
France, which has a long tradition of popular protest, has seen high school students stage blockades and demonstrations for more than three weeks, demanding greater resources for schools they describe as understaffed and run-down, particularly in lower-income neighborhoods.
The movement expanded when France's CGT labor union and other activists joined the protests as students took a break for the autumn holidays. Demonstrators have since broadened their demands to include action on the rising cost of living and declining public services.
Although hundreds of thousands of people took part in peaceful marches, weekend unrest resulted in 2,400 arrests and serious disturbances in several parts of France, including looting in Paris, Marseille, Lyon and Bordeaux.
In Limoges, flames engulfed the 19th-century City Hall, nearly destroying the building. Some schools were also set on fire. Hundreds of people have been injured as students and rioters threw firebombs and police responded with tear gas.
French President Emmanuel Macron condemned the violence on Saturday, accusing far-left activists of seeking to create chaos by attacking buildings and police.
"Those who looted will have to pay for the damage, and those who sought to bring down the Republic will be held accountable," Macron said in a rare televised address on Sunday.
In Spain, elementary and secondary schoolteachers began an indefinite strike in Madrid last week, demanding better pay and working conditions. Teachers in other parts of the country have staged similar walkouts this year.
Housing costs put pressure on young people
In central Madrid's Puerta del Sol, tents covered with tarpaulins have occupied the square for weeks as protesters demonstrate against soaring housing costs. The protests were sparked by the eviction of María del Carmen Abascal, an 87-year-old woman who later died while in hospital. Smaller protest camps have since emerged in other Spanish cities.
Public pressure prompted the ruling Socialist government to approve affordable housing measures, but the proposals failed to secure parliamentary support, leading Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez to call an early election in November. A general strike has also been called for November, the first in 14 years.
Similar housing protests have emerged in Portugal's largest cities, Lisbon and Porto, as well as in Barcelona, which faces significant challenges related to overtourism and housing affordability.
Spain's minimum wage stands at 1,221 euros ($1,370), while the average monthly rent for an 80-square-meter apartment is around 1,130 euros (about $1,270), according to an analysis by business newspaper Expansión.
"Most of my paycheck goes to the rent. My roommate struggles to make ends meet just like I do," said Diana Manzanares, a 20-year-old waitress at the Madrid encampment. "This is my reality and the reality of most of us living in this city."
Rising inflation adds to pressure in Italy
The "Italia in Piazza" (Italy in the Streets) movement has mobilized thousands of demonstrators demanding better employment opportunities, healthcare, education and access to housing, along with higher wages.
Inflation in Italy climbed to 4.2% in September, exceeding the eurozone rate of 3.8%, according to government data.
Peaceful marches were followed by violent riots in Turin and Bologna, as well as Milan, the country's financial and fashion capital. There, masked rioters clashed with police, looted shops and set property on fire.
Milan police said 271 people were arrested, most of them minors, while 14 security officers were injured during two days of unrest.
A newly formed group calling itself the "17 October Movement" has since announced what it describes as a "permanent mobilization," with demonstrations planned every Saturday at 3pm in cities across Italy.
Albanian students join anti-corruption demonstrations
Anti-government protests have continued for more than a week in Albania's capital, Tirana, with clashes intensifying after high school and university students joined the broader anti-government "Flamingo" movement, which is demanding the resignation of Socialist Prime Minister Edi Rama.
Rama has denounced the protesters as "ideologized and radicalized" by antifa, a term used to describe loosely organized far-left militants. Trump has designated the movement a terrorist organization in the United States.
The movement, named after the flamingos' natural habitat in an area where Rama's government agreed to allow a major luxury tourism development linked to Jared Kushner, Trump's son-in-law, has made ending corruption a key demand. It is also calling for protections for healthcare, education and public pensions, according to its website.
In Serbia, university students who have led mass anti-corruption protests for nearly two years are challenging an attempted return to power by former populist leader Aleksandar Vucic in parliamentary elections.
Vucic, the Balkan country's former authoritarian president, is seeking to become prime minister after the October 25 vote. The youth-backed Students' List party is believed to be running close to Vucic's party, leaving the outcome uncertain and raising concerns about possible violence.