Some excerpts from the long Third Circuit en banc opinion yesterday by Judge Stephanos Bibas in U.S. v. Bost (for another Third Circuit en banc case decided yesterday that reached the opposite result on different facts, see Second Amendment Rights Not Forfeited by Past Drunk Driving Conviction):
The right to keep and bear arms has limits, and this is one: Those who pose a risk of physical violence from misusing guns can be disarmed before that risk becomes a reality. Not every convict poses such a risk—but James Bost does. He pleaded guilty to terroristic threats and other crimes. Years later, police caught him with a pistol not once, but twice. So he was charged with having a gun despite his convictions, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 922(g)(1), which makes it illegal for felons to have guns….
But Bost's violent conviction is prima facie enough to disarm him. We hold that some predicate crimes (like Bost's conviction for terroristic threats) demonstrate a prima facie risk of physical violence from misusing guns and that those convicted of such crimes may presumptively be disarmed based on those convictions alone….
In 2002, Bost carjacked someone, threatening to kill the driver unless she gave him money. To get that money, he drove to her mother's home, where she escaped from the car, screaming for help. Bost was then arrested and pleaded guilty to terroristic threats and criminal conspiracy (as well as false imprisonment and simple assault). Those first two Pennsylvania crimes are first-degree misdemeanors punishable by up to five years in prison. One element of the terroristic-threats crime required "a threat to commit any crime of violence with intent to terrorize another." Bost was sentenced to four years' probation.
Later, while on bail for another arrest, Bost failed to appear in court. U.S. Marshals tracked him down. They found him in his girlfriend's home, next to a couch with a stolen .38 caliber pistol on it. Bost was indicted federally for possessing a stolen gun and possessing a gun despite his convictions (based on the terroristic-threats and conspiracy convictions). He moved to dismiss the indictment, arguing that § 922(g)(1) [the federal bans on felons possessing guns -EV] is unconstitutional as applied to him and that it is facially unconstitutional….
The court held that the case against Bost could go forward:
The Second Amendment secures the right of "the people" to "keep and bear Arms." Since felons are part of "the people," the amendment protects what § 922(g)(1) forbids—a felon's having a gun. So the government must justify this restriction by analogizing to our nation's historical tradition of gun regulation….
Two years ago, we held § 922(g)(1) unconstitutional as applied to a man with a prior conviction for food-stamp fraud.. But we flagged a limit to our holding, stressing that the government had no evidence that Range posed a risk of violence to others or that his crime "[was] closely associated with physical danger." That aligned with the Supreme Court's later holding in Rahimi that, under a law banning such people from having guns, someone who poses "a clear threat of physical violence to another" person "may be disarmed." … So § 922(g)(1) is constitutional insofar as it disarms convicts who pose a risk of physical violence from misusing guns.
Now we ask … how may the law address a risk of violence[, focusing on] … the nature of the restriction imposed, the process used to impose it, and its duration….
Historically, there were two paths to disarming people. One was individualized: A court found someone to pose a risk of physical violence from misusing guns and disarmed him. The other was categorical: A law targeted a disloyal group that risked violence to the community. In those instances, a member of the group could often get his rights back by showing that he himself did not pose a risk of violence.
Individualized judgment was the norm. For centuries, disarmament was tied to a judge's finding that someone posed a risk of physical violence from misusing guns. Sometimes, that meant punishing risky behavior. Going-armed laws punished and disarmed those who used their weapons to menace others. Rooted in the old bans on affrays, they targeted conduct that spread fear and threatened the peace: going armed "to the Terror of the People." These laws were often enacted with bans on fighting, together targeting conduct likely to lead to violence.
Other laws, like surety laws, aimed to prevent harm before it happened. If someone credibly feared that another person posed a risk of physical violence, including by misusing his arms, he could complain to a magistrate. The magistrate would hold a hearing, weigh the evidence, and decide whether the accused was likely to breach the peace. If the risk was real, the accused had to post a bond promising to keep the peace for up to six months. If he failed to post it, he would go to jail; if he breached the peace, he would forfeit the bond. Either way, the restraint was tailored to the person's risk….
To be sure, some laws disarmed categories of people, but these examples are few, fraught, and often discriminatory. Most founding-era bans disarmed political enemies—groups thought capable of collective rebellion. These measures were tied to allegiance and often lifted once the perceived threat passed. Plus, many applied to groups that lawmakers refused to treat as part of "the people" protected by the Second Amendment, like slaves and American Indians. Both features meaningfully distinguish these historical bans from today's across-the-board ban on felons. Even so, their procedures for rearmament are instructive…. [R]earmament was not automatic. Often, the disarmed person had to make some showing that he no longer posed a risk of violence…. [This paragraph, and the section that contains it, got only 7 of the 14 total votes; Judge Tamika Montgomery-Reeves, who joined the rest of the opinion, declined to join this part because it "relies on repugnant and discriminatory laws and procedures that would very likely violate the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution…. I question whether the invidious, and likely unconstitutional, laws undergirding these rearmament procedures are valid inputs for Bruen's test. I need not answer that question, however, because less constitutionally infirm comparators support the same conclusion."]
Bost's Violent Conviction Suffices, at This Early Stage, to Show His Risk of Violence …
Some predicate crimes speak for themselves. Violent offenses, like common-law murder, forcible rape, and common-law robbery, mark a person as such. And the going-armed laws disarmed people whose conduct was threatening. These types of convictions suffice to justify disarmament. We do not require that the predicate violent or threatening crime itself involved guns or the threat of guns. Unarmed forcible rapes, for instance, can qualify.
Other predicate crimes speak for themselves in the other direction: They are not even physically dangerous, let alone violent.
There may perhaps be a third, intermediate category: Still other predicate crimes may be closer calls. Though they may not involve immediate violence, they may fuel it and pose risks to the community. Whether these predicate crimes justify disarmament depends on their own historical analogies.
So at either end of the spectrum, the predicate crime tells the court enough about the felon's risk of physical violence to decide whether to dismiss a § 922(g)(1) indictment. In the middle, it is possible that courts may have to draw more lines.
But if so, we need not draw them today. Bost was convicted of terroristic threats. The elements of that predicate crime included "a threat to commit any crime of violence with intent to terrorize another." … That conduct fits squarely within the historical tradition of disarming those who threaten violence. It echoes the core concern of the going-armed laws: conduct that terrifies others and breaches or risks breaching the peace. Bost's indictment is sufficient as a matter of law. And at this early stage, a court may dismiss only if the predicate conviction is insufficient as a matter of law to put the defendant into the category of persons who pose a risk of physical violence from misusing guns. We need not address what, if anything, could later take a defendant out of that category….
Judge Patty Schwartz wrote an opinion concurring in the judgment; so did Judge Jennifer Mascott. Judge Peter Phipps filed a dissenting opinion. All are worth reading, as is the rest of Judge Bibas's opinion.
Donovan J. Cocas, Laura S. Irwin, and Vivek Suri represent the government.
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